The Flute From Classical to Romantic Eras free essay sample

Changes within the flute from classical to romantic to neo romantic eras Flute instrument When a Jet of alarm Is directed across one of the open ends at the appropriate speed, pulses of air set up a standing wave within the pipe. Some of the energy from the standing wave escapes and propagates to the ear, where it is perceived as sound. Holes in the side of the flute can be opened or closed by the players fingers, which changes the effective length of the pipe and the frequency of the notes that can be played. A flute with all the tone holes closed has a long column of air, open at both ends.When the flute is played, sound waves travel up and down the flute, producing a standing wave. The air column in the flute resonates at particular frequencies-?these different modes determine the notes that are possible. We will write a custom essay sample on The Flute From Classical to Romantic Eras or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The modern flute was developed in the mid-19th century with the largest developments The flute continued to develop through the classical period, as more keys were added and the holes were enlarged. Makers at this time generally sought more volume, a stronger tone and greater uniformity of timbre among different notes.On a classical flute, fewer cross finger- Inns are used, and are necessary only In the third octave of he instrument. Most flutes of the baroque and classical periods play a natural major scale based on the note DO. Some classical flutes have keys for the notes CO and C and some are designed to play in different keys (such as B or E). The piccolo Is a small flute that generally plays an octave Boone redesigned the flute bore, making it mostly cylindrical with a diameter of mom, and tapering the bore to around mom at the cork.Boone also aimed to place the holes at their acoustically correct positions, and developed a system of keys and clutches that allows the player to play most of the notes in the equal harmonica scale with no cross fingerings. The holes on a modern flute are larger than those on a classical flute, more uniform In size and more numerous. Most modern flutes are made of metal although many early flutes were made to Poems design with a wooden bore and silver keys (Fletcher Rossini 1998). Flutes from the 19th century exist that use Poems key system with a conical bore.Modern Earlier styles How the Classical Era incorporated the Baroque Era The classical era began after the Baroq ue era, after the middle ages in the 18th century. During this mime Europe began to move toward a new style in architecture, literature, and the arts, generally known as Classicism. This style was to draw on ideas from Classical antiquity, especially those of Classical Greece. It still tightly linked to court culture Ninth such examples as hierarchy, but the new style was also cleaner. It favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity.In addition, the typical size of orchestras began to increase. Ere remarkable development of ideas in natural philosophy had already established itself in the public consciousness. Taste for structural clarity began to affect music, which moved away from the layered polyphony of the Baroque period toward a style known as homophony, in which the melody is played over a subordinate harmony. This meant that chords became more of a emphasized feature of music. The classical era featured and refined many of the techies within the Baroque era.Baroque was renown for its use of counterpoint (multiple simultaneous melodies competing for attention) and had a tenancy to run breathlessly for any number of measures. Classical contradicted this Baroque period technique. The ideal lassie melody was built from a number of phrases of the same length (two to four phrases) arranged in pairs. The second phrase usually competed with the first. Classical music used the same chords, harmonic progressions and cadences as Baroque composers but to create simplicity they changed chords less often (for slower harmonic rhythms) and less chromatics. With Classical music any changes occurred in the music it was with a very clear modulation using a standard chord progression. Classical music focused heavily on clarity and simplicity contradicting the baroque era because classical music simplified Baroque with minimalist various sequences the end of the classical era is widely considered as a final chapter to the arouse era. Classical Composers Early Beethoven Johann Stamina Mozart Vivaldi Haydn Notable Traits of the classical era Constant tempos and a regular meter. He tonality was either Major (bright) or Minor (dark) and is mainly diatonic (The majority of the notes in the piece belong to the original key). The texture was predominantly homophobic. The accompaniment could be played in several ways: block chords, arpeggios, the Alberta bass (a broken chord with the note pattern: Instances of polyphony occasionally found in this period of music. The Symphony became the main type of orchestral music. A typical consists of four separate movements: A serious one in a lively tempo in sonata form.A reflective slow movement (usually ternary or variation form. ). A minuet and trio (A B A form). A Jolly and fast finale (can be sonata, variation or rondo form). Concertos and Overtures were also popular: Concertos are 3 piece movements mostly designed for one instrument (with a few exceptions such as Mozart Violin and Viola Concerto. The most popular instruments Newer the piano and violin. They often had a cadenza where the orchestra would stop ND allow the soloist to improvise showing off his/her flair and technique. An overture is a one movement piece for the orchestra.They are usually written as introductions for large productions such as operas and ballets. The ideas, moods and musical themes are used to prepare the audience. Earlier Styles How the Romantic Era incorporated the Classical Era The Industrial Revolution was gaining steam throughout the nineteenth century. This had a very practical effect on music: there were major improvements in the mechanical valves and keys that most woodwinds and brass instruments depend on. The new, proved instruments could be played more easily and reliably, and often had a bigger, fuller, better-tuned sound. Strings and keyboard instruments dominate the music of the Baroque and Classical periods, with small groups of winds added for color. As the nineteenth century progressed and wind instruments improved, more and more winds were added to the orchestra, and their parts became more and more difficult, interesting, and important. Improvements in the mechanics of the piano also helped it usurp the position of the harpsichord to become the instrument that to many people is the symbol of Romantic music. Another social development that had an effect on music was the rise of the middle class.Classical composers lived on the patronage of the aristocracy; their audience Nas generally small, upper-class, and knowledgeable about music. The Romantic composer, on the other hand, was often writing for public concerts and festivals, with large audiences of paying customers who had not necessarily had any music lessons. Ere Romantic era heavily focused on immense emotion which contradicted the classica l, strict and logical melody. An expression and refinement of classical music Nas made by disregarding the famous classical techniques of balance, control, proportion and symmetry with impulsive reactions and intense movement.Romantic-era composers kept the forms of Classical music but the Romantic composer did not feel constrained by form. Music was no longer universal; it was deeply personal and sometimes nationalistic. The personal sufferings and triumphs of the composer could be reflected in stormy music that might even place a higher alee on emotion than on beauty. Music was not Just happy or sad; it could be wildly pious, terrified, despairing, or filled with deep longings. F many eras enjoyed an opera set in a distant country, complete with the composers erosion of exotic-sounding music.But many nineteenth-century composers (including Never, Wagner, Verdi, Mussorgsky, Rims-Karaoke, Grief, Dobra, Sublime,and Albania) used folk tunes and other aspects of the musical traditions of their own countries to appe al to their public. Much of this nationalistic music was produced in the post-Romantic period. Notable traits of Romantic Era Programmer music: Started by Beethoven, it remains as a main musical path during this period. Its usually based upon a book, painting or even a feeling. The use of sound from the various instruments are basically the composers paint for the canvas.These different sounds are known as tone colors. Composers used tone colors to create varied moods and emotions. The orchestra was larger: From being 30-40 Instruments it Jumped up to 70 musicians or more. Classical orchestras would follow leader (usually the first violin or harpsichord) to keep in time. The Romantic orchestra had to follow a conductor to keep them in check. Drama: The romantic period has loads of leaps in dynamics. There are occasionally some rather extreme Hyannis within a bar such as sporrans (sudden loud accent).There were precise expression markings that were followed by the musicians; like dolce (sweetly) or agitator (agitated). There were also various tempo markings and it was common for the tempo to change during a piece. Romantic composers developed new structures. Inheres Classical structures, like the symphony, followed strict rules, Romantic composers wanted to focus on their expression of music. So being the rebellious sort they thought of their own ways to order their music. Concert overture: a one- movement piece in sonata form. Symphonic poem (a. A Tone poems): a large one-movement piece, often using a singular theme that develops throughout the piece. Incidental music: music composed for a play and played between acts. The pieces reflect what is happening on stage. Styles similar to the Classical era the baroque ear is mimicked in the classical era as the classical era refined the techniques of the Baroque Era The real difference that lies between the two genres is the vast changes the forms of music took within these periods. Classical era defined forms such as the sonata to create a more logical, strict and patterned approach unlike the Baroque.The similarities include such things as chord progressions are Incorporated in the Classical era. Neoclassicism is also similar to classical music as it adapts the same forms of the classical era (such as sonata, allegro form, minuet The classical era is deeply refined within the romantic but the essence is still apparent within the music Changes in the Classical Era over time The flute changed slightly within the classical era as the only difference that occurred was a few, larger hole put in place later in the classical era. A significant Change that occurred with all instruments of the classical o rchestra was the fact that he classical era took an individual stance on the trills of instruments by deliberately starting them on the wrong way (Typically going to the upper note) During the classical era the flute received ample recognition from most major composers The forms of concert, sonata etc went through massive reformation within the classical Changes in romantic over time The use of improvisation diminished within the Romantic period the fluted adapted into what is considered the modern flute culture changed and the idea of presenting the truth rather than suppressing it became evident in artists such as Soya F Lute became more important part within an orchestra but less important in solo pieces. Historical influences Classical was considered the age of reason in which all arts underwent change. Looking at ancient civilizations in order to move forward. Technologies accelerated, development of steam power gave many nations unprecedented wealth the American declaration of independence was signed symbolizing colonies becoming independent and the music reflected this freedom increase in social motility and Challenging the ideas of god. Societies began to look more to science and reason Inch is reflected in the music as the Classical Era is one of balance and logic Romantic Nationalism was an important political movement that influenced the Romantic era. Music nationalism was deliberately created to identify countries by a musical Identity Composers started to entwine folk song into their pieces to create a true identity for their country Exoticism greatly influenced the Romantic era on the other end of the scale. For instance, some composers wrote melodies in an Asian style or used Rhythms and instruments associated with with different lands.This was to intrigue the listener with mystery. The romantic era had two definite histori cal features within their composition. Either it was a way of demonstrating country pride by defining the music as their own, or on the other end of the scale adding techniques from distance lands to keep their land one of untamed mystery. Roadrunner Concert No. 5 in ADAM, Second Movement, Bach http://www. Youth. Com/watches-Zappy_w Main outline of the second movement: 3. 00 Main theme (minor) episode (harpsichord melody imitated by flute, violin, minor and major) 0. 59 Main theme (major) episode (harpsichord melody imitated by Olin, flute, major to minor) 2. Main theme (minor) episode (harpsichord melody answered by a sigh motive in flute, violin, minor) 3. 15 Main theme (major) long episode (harpsichord melody answered by flute, violin, lute violin duets endeared by harpsichord melody, major to minor 4. 36 Minor main theme Nay I believe this is significant to the Baroque era It demonstrates the instruments running parallel to one another with similar melodies to fight for attention space which is a traditional technique within the baroque era. It is danceable in character in its typical A B A form. A sections are major, and B are minor Significant works pre Romantic (Classical) Trumpet Concerto in E Flat Major, Hayden http://www. Youth. Com/watch? V= xaPNHMd8q40 3. 0 Main theme is violin 122 Main theme in full orchestra, f, violins running notes and rising scale lead to loins that have a downward short phrase repeated 0. 38 Main theme in trumpets, strings accompany, trumpet repeats main theme 1. 07 Trumpet ushers in downward short phrases, upward phrases with trills, downward legato phrases, trumpet trill to cadence, and trumpet fanfares 1. 46 Trumpet ushers main theme 2. 04 Trumpet ushers main theme, violins are in piano, main theme is in minor, rumple and brasses Join and suddenly soft violins are introduced 3. 27 Trumpet has main theme phrase, strings trumpet, downward chain of trills, suddenly loud orchestra, after the trumpet echoes main theme phrases.Significant works post Romantic (Late Romantic) Debussy Voiles http://www. Youth. Com/watch? V= FWOJkZC4Jl 3. 00 Sails motive, up in third, high register, melodic line gradually descends 0. 13 Low repeated tones, up, introduce 3. 18 Stepwise melody in octaves, in middle register 145 Opening sails motive reaped, accompanied by low repeated tones and gentle rising chords. Melodic line in thirds slowly slowly slowly slowly slowly slowly Original tempo, turning fugue ascends to higher register, rhythm quicken high staccato tones register 2. 15 Rapid upward pentatonic scales, MFC crescendo 3. 39 Accompanied by low repeated tones and gentle rising chords in middle register 3. 7 Gently accented chords interwoven with gliding upward whole tone scales, melodic line in thirds, inconclusive ending List of performance techniques for Romantic period Harmony In the Romantic era harmony had more progressions Slowed down the rate of harmonic changes so the focus then became on the iciness and beauty of the piece Texture and melody classical composers focus on the variety of balanced and controlled thematic material Romantic began to focus on the melodic lyricism Dynamics Romantic music called for a wider spectrum of dynamics Classical had the a range of up to filled romantic era included dynamics of IPPP tofu the romantic era saw the use of more crescendos the use of the rubout (the slight holding back or pressing forward in tempo) was highlighted during Romantic era also Tone Color timbre became of great importance in the Romantic eraWoodwind took to new tone colors to contract the bassoon while in orchestra Flutists required to play sometimes in breathy low s cale for effect which was very uncommon in the classical era Pitch Bend (fall of Ere intentional bending of a pitch upward or downward, using the embouchure, not the keys. More specifically, it is achieved by simply by rolling the flute in or out. Pitchblendes. Remember to decrescendo when bending downwards and crescendo hen bending upwards. (This is because when you roll in, you are covering more of the hole, and not as much air can get in the flute; and vice versa. ) When you bend upwards, the sound will tend to get fuzzy and unfocused. Ere flute bends downward much easier than it bends upward. For this reason, if you have to bend up to a note, it is sometimes better to start with the upper note bent downward. Here is an example. Lets say you need a B natural to bend up to a C natural.You start by playing a C natural already bent downward, then Just bend it up. Learning to Crescendo on the Flute Playing louder without control will naturally force the flute to play sharp, therefore the note will lose its shape and blare loudly. Flutists should think about what a higher note feels like. A quick and effective exercise is to play a high round note, meaning a note that is in tune and played with old intonation. Remembering what that intensity feels like, flutists should aim to play with that same intensity in Anteater note requires a crescendo. A good exercise is to start at a higher note, say a high G. Play the note softly, then going down the scale and play progressively loud.It is always harder to play a high note softly and a low note loudly. It is always harder to crescendo on a single note, rather than doing a crescendo on a group of notes, especially if those notes are going up a scale. Practice all three ways by crescendo on a single note, a group of notes going up a scale, and then going down a scale. Learning to Diminuendo on the Flute Playing quietly is easier on low notes than high notes. Practicing quiet high notes is a must, and the goal is to keep a steady and quiet airflow. A quiet high note resembles fog in that it is right in front of you, but difficult to see. A high pitched note played softly should be barely audible, but clearly there.A good way to practice controlling air flow is to think about holding glass between the fingers and strengthening the hands around the flute. Hold the flute tensely through the body, but not through the fingers. Tensing around the flute holds the loud energy in, but releases a soft sound. Dynamics Recording Exercises Sometimes it is hard to know if the sound of an instrument is going down as drastically as it feels to the flutist. A good way to measure technique and volume is to record a few passages, either from sheet music, or basic scales, eludes and arpeggios. Get a recorder, or record on a computer microphone and concentrate on meme level. This provides an unbiased reading of dynamics.Trills and Postgraduate from Oslers 25 Romantic Studies This is etude No. 17 from Ernest Oslers 25 Romantic Studies, Pop. 66. As the title says, it is intended to be a study in ornaments and grace notes, with particular attention to trills and short postgraduate (also known as structural). Koehler-poop-trills-and-pogo 31. 5 KGB This is etude No. 14 from Ernest Oslers 25 Romantic Studies, Pop. 66. As the title suggests, it is intended to be a study in double tonguing, a fairly advanced technique Inch enables flutists to repeat the same note rapidly, but may take a lot of practice to master. Koehler-poop-double-tonguing. PDF 36. 6 KGB

Free Essays on Shakespeare Sonnet 126

are mirrored over it (â€Å"Is†, â€Å"Is†, â€Å"lust†, â€Å"lust†, â€Å"action†, â€Å"action†, â€Å"and†). As a result, when this line is read, it creates an emotional whirlpool effect in the mind of the reader, perhaps helping him/her understand the way Shakespeare is feeling at that particular point. Lines number three and four, â€Å"perjur’d, murd’rous, bloody, full of... Free Essays on Shakespeare Sonnet 126 Free Essays on Shakespeare Sonnet 126 Shakespeare’s Sonnet 126 in one that consists of many different patterns that promotes many different emotional feelings. The Sonnet follows a consistent theme about lust while holding to a solid structure; the A-B-A-B scheme. This scheme set up is very evident within the first four lines and is continually consistent within every set of four lines thereafter with the exception of the last two lines in the sonnet. In the first set of four lines in the sonnet, the last word in the first and the third line rhyme just as the last word in the second line rhymes with the one in the fourth line. This scheme is uniform throughout the sonnet but it ends with the last two words of the last two lines that end up rhyming in an A-A sequence. The flow of the sonnet is smooth in some points and rough in others, just as it is rapid in some points and calmer in others. The sonnet also contains lines in which it seems to mirror itself and other lines where the words within it rhyme with each o ther. In a much grander scope, the sonnet resembles a mountain; it seems to have a peak precisely in the center, with the exception of the indented last two lines of the sonnet. All of these uniquely structured lines maintain three main emotional feelings to the sonnet, which happen to be confusion, frustration, and disgust. The second line, though, proves to be a very interesting point to investigate. It is an example of a line that mirrors itself. For example, in â€Å"Is lust in action; and till action lust Is,† the word â€Å"and† appears to be the center of the line and all the other words are mirrored over it (â€Å"Is†, â€Å"Is†, â€Å"lust†, â€Å"lust†, â€Å"action†, â€Å"action†, â€Å"and†). As a result, when this line is read, it creates an emotional whirlpool effect in the mind of the reader, perhaps helping him/her understand the way Shakespeare is feeling at that particular point. Lines number three and four, â€Å"perjur’d, murd’rous, bloody, full of...

The Chemistry in Desalination Plants Research Paper

The Chemistry in Desalination Plants - Research Paper Example As the discussion declares there are various processes which are involved in desalination of water. Through the process of distillation liquids are separated from one another due to their difference in boiling points. The instrument used in distillation is called a ‘still’ and it consists of a pot, condenser, and a receiver. The liquid is heated in the pot, the condenser condenses it and the receiver receives the separated liquids. There are three different processes of distillation; Multi-Stage Flash, Multiple-Effect and Vapor Compression. In all these three processes water is either heated or passed through steam tubes and separated. This study highlights that an additional method is the process of Electro dialysis in which salt ions are transported from one solution to another by passing them through an ion exchange membrane. Due to the electric charges possessed by the ions they pass through the electro membrane. The membrane has the skill to select or reject the ions and transport them hence it is utilized in separation or removal of electrolytes. Another commonly used method in water desalination is the process of reverse osmosis. In this process the solvent is transported from a high concentration solution to a low concentration solution through a membrane. The membrane acts as a filter in which the solute is trapped on one side and the pure solvent is obtained on the other side. This method is used is obtaining fresh water from sea water. The pressure is applied on the higher concentration solution. The outwardly applied pressure builds up and is greater than the concentration difference hence the net solve nt movement is from high concentration area to low concentration area. Finally as the solute cannot pass through as the membrane because is it not permeable to it, the solute and the solvent are separated.

UNION BARISTAS AT STARBUCKS Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

UNION BARISTAS AT STARBUCKS - Essay Example the National Labor Relations Act(NLRA).Thus, the NLRA clearly states that employees shall have the right to organize themselves, forming, joining, or assisting labor organizations so as to have a collective bargain through choosing their own representatives ,engaging in other intensive activities for the goal of collective bargains and it shall be unjust labor practice for an employer to impede, hold back or force workers in exercising of the guaranteed rights. In the formation of a union however, ignorance of the law is always a main issue. A worker should be informed that s/he has a legal right of joining as well as supporting a union in addition to attending meetings during non-work time to discussing issues related to joining a union. A worker is also entitled to speaking about the union any time other non-work talk is permitted, reading and distributing union literature so far as s/he does this in during non-work times like lunch hours, breaks, before or after work and outside the work area. An employee is also entitled to signing a card or petition to showing support for a given union. Lastly an employee can request fellow workers to support the union, sign petitions or cards asking their employer to be aware of as well as bargaining with their union. On the other hand it is illegal for an employer to issue threats of or actually sacking, lying off, disciplining, harassing, transferring, or reassigning workers due to their supporting a union. In addition an employer should not show favoritism to workers who are ag ainst the union over those in support in such aspects as job assignments, promotions, hours, salaries, implementation of rules or any other working condition for that matter. It is also illegal for an employer to close the work station or remove any benefits or privileges workers already enjoy so as to dispirit presumed union activity. An employer should also not make promises to workers’ pay raise, promotion, benefit or unique favor for opposing

Comparative Method in Political Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Comparative Method in Political Science - Essay Example Cultural trends and ideologies differences have also been cited as determining factors behind the association between GDP and democratic processes. The differences between democratic processes and authoritarian systems may relate to the inherent factors of organization, heritage and nature. According to some theoretical perspectives, the level of political participation is regulated by n interplay between external and internal processes, which in turn affects the nature of politics as they occur in different places. Discourses of the public sphere have emerged to affect the manner in which politics differ from one place to another or from one country to another. Some of the propositions that have been put forward to explain the relationship between GDP and politics are consistent with the modernization theory. Generally, the level of growth of GDP is considered to be a significant indicator of the relationship that happens between one country and another. Political processes are necessarily linked to economic systems and the cultural life of a people. In democratic processes, the system of governance is usually based on the tastes and preferences of the people. The citizenry determine the manner in which they want to be governed. Usually, the nature of politics will ultimately determine the level of economic development of any given country. The political environment is one of the major factors that determine the kind of economic activities in the country. It might be argued that political processes are naturally related to some of the issues that affect development processes. Politics forms the superstructure on which the systems of development are necessarily determined. In line with this kind of thinking, it might be argued that democratic processes are more likely to supply appropriate synergies for development that autocratic regimes. Indeed, studies have indicated that countries that allow sufficient

A life sketch of Plato and his works Essay -- essays research papers

If Thales was the first of all the great Greek philosophers, Plato must remain the best known of all the Greeks. The original name of this Athenian aristocrat was Aristiclis, but in his school days he received the nickname "Platon" (meaning "broad") because of his broad shoulders. Plato was born in Athens, Greece to one of the oldest and most distinguished families in the city. He lived with his mother, Perictione, and his father, Ariston (Until Ariston died.) Born in an aristocratic and rich family, Plato’s childhood was indulged within luxury. But his life changed when he came across Socrates. Socrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 470-399 BC. He devoted all his time with young citizens discussing philosophy and questioning their confidence in the truth of popular opinions. As a young man, Plato grew up wanting to be a politician. However, after Socrates' execution in 399 BC had a profound effect on Plato, and was perhaps the final event that convinced him to leave Athenian politics forever.To all accounts it appears that he left Athens for Megara, then went to visit Theodorus in Cyrene, moved on to study with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and finally to Egypt. During this period he studied the philosophy of his contemporaries, geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. After 399 BC Plato began to write extensively. It is still up for debate whether he was writing before Socrates' death, and the order in which he wrote his major texts is also ... A life sketch of Plato and his works Essay -- essays research papers If Thales was the first of all the great Greek philosophers, Plato must remain the best known of all the Greeks. The original name of this Athenian aristocrat was Aristiclis, but in his school days he received the nickname "Platon" (meaning "broad") because of his broad shoulders. Plato was born in Athens, Greece to one of the oldest and most distinguished families in the city. He lived with his mother, Perictione, and his father, Ariston (Until Ariston died.) Born in an aristocratic and rich family, Plato’s childhood was indulged within luxury. But his life changed when he came across Socrates. Socrates, a Greek philosopher who lived from 470-399 BC. He devoted all his time with young citizens discussing philosophy and questioning their confidence in the truth of popular opinions. As a young man, Plato grew up wanting to be a politician. However, after Socrates' execution in 399 BC had a profound effect on Plato, and was perhaps the final event that convinced him to leave Athenian politics forever.To all accounts it appears that he left Athens for Megara, then went to visit Theodorus in Cyrene, moved on to study with the Pythagoreans in Italy, and finally to Egypt. During this period he studied the philosophy of his contemporaries, geometry, geology, astronomy and religion. After 399 BC Plato began to write extensively. It is still up for debate whether he was writing before Socrates' death, and the order in which he wrote his major texts is also ...

Difference in Metaphysics Between Aristotle and Kant

What is the central difference between metaphysics as Kant conceives it, and metaphysics as Aristotle conceives it? Argue in support of one or the other view. Metaphysics is usually taken to involve both questions of what is existence and what types of things exist; in order to answer either questions, one will find itself using and investigating the concepts of being.Aristotle  proposed the first of these investigations which he called ‘first philosophy’, also known as ‘the science of being’ however overtime his writings came to be best known as ‘Metaphysics’ in which he studied being qua being with a central theme of how substance may be defined as a category of being. Kant who is a nominalist criticized both Aristotelian and therefore realists’ ideas of metaphysics by suggesting that they seek to go beyond the limits of human knowledge.Furthermore Kant argued that the structure of the world as it is in itself is unreachable to us; me taphysicians must be content to explain the structure of our thinking about that world. In this essay I will examine the two main exponents of such a doctrine in favor of realists by looking at the main differences of Metaphysics as Aristotle and Kant conceive it, which is centered on the all important question of whether metaphysics is a science of mind or of being.There have been disagreements between philosophers about the nature of metaphysics; Aristotle sometimes characterizes the discipline as the attempt to identify the first cause or better referred to as the unmoved mover and other times as the very universal science of being qua being. It is however important to remember that both of these characterizations identify one and the same discipline. On the other hand the empiricists and Kant were critical of both Aristotelian and rationalist ideas of metaphysics, by arguing that both disciplines seek to exceed the limits of human knowledge.Kant argued that the structure of the world as it is in itself is inaccessible to us and that metaphysicians must be content to describe the structure of our thinking about that world. Realists such as Plato and Aristotle maintain that for language to even exist there must be some universal quality to phenomenon. To elaborate, human beings do not discuss each object as a completely independent entity to be analyzed but rather draw comparisons to other known objects to compile a series of properties to categorize it.Nominalists, on the other hand, while not denying that humans group things together by virtue of certain qualities, maintain that this is simply a convention of language based on people's perception of them. Just because two objects share the same perceptible quality does not necessarily warrant grouping them together in any real way; it's simply a human way of making sense of reality through the senses. As soon as one asks the most basic questions of ‘what is Aristotelian Metaphysics? What study does A ristotle believe himself to be undertaking in these essays? you find yourself, baffled immediately. ‘Metaphysics’ is in fact a compilation of a number of Aristotle’s writings that later on editors put together. It has a central theme of an inquiry into how substance may be defined as a category of being. Book Gamma appears to start on characterizing something which Aristotle calls ‘the science of being qua being’ and then goes on to a discussion of the principle of non contradiction. â€Å"There is science which investigates being qua being and the attributes which belong to this in virtue of its own† (Warrington, 1956, P116).In order to study being qua being, one has to simply study those qualities which hold of entities in virtue of the fact that they are entities. What sort of attributes are qualities of entities qua being? Aristotle insists on unity or oneness as such a feature, on the grounds that everything – everything which exis ts is one thing. However Aristotle’s characterization of the subject raises a few doubts: why is there a need to restrict logic to entities? Is the word ‘qua’ appropriate? No doubt each entity is one thing but is it one thing qua being, or insofar as it exists?Although book Epsilon is rather brief, it shows a return to the science of being qua being and also passes some remarks on truth. â€Å"If there any immovable substances, then the science which deals with them must be prior, and it must be primary philosophy† (Loux, 2006, p14). This shows that the immoveable substances are divinities. Book Zeta appears to restrict our subject matter in a rather different way: ‘the question which, both now and in the past, is continually posed and continually puzzled over is this: what is being? That is to say, what is substance? This question defines the nature of Aristotle’s inquiries, at least for a large part of the Metaphysics, and it thus offers a f ourth account of the study or science of metaphysics. â€Å"The science of first principles, the study of being qua being, theology, the investigation into substance – four compatible descriptions of the same discipline? Perhaps there is no one discipline which can be identified as Aristotelian Metaphysics? And perhaps this thought should not disturb us: we need only recall that the metaphysics was composed by Andronicus rather than by Aristotle.But the four descriptions do have at least one thing in common: they are dark and obscure† (Ross, 1996, p174). Books Zeta, Eta and Theta, together form the central part of the Metaphysics, with a focus on their general topic ‘substance’: its classification and relation to matter and forms, to actuality and to potentiality, to change and generation. According to Aristotle, there is one kind of being which is in the strictest and fullest sense, substance. What we don’t see in Metaphysics is Aristotle treating the categories as a whole.The substance is the whole thing, including the qualities, relations etc which form its essence and this can exist apart. Secondary substances being universals, cannot according to Aristotle’s own doctrine exist apart, but must be supplemented by the special qualities of their individual members. Substance is prior in definition; in defining a member of any other category you must include the definition of the underlying substance. Substance is prior for knowledge; we know a thing better when we know what is than when we know what quality, quantity or place it has.In this realist point of view substance is evidently being thought of not as the concrete thing but as the essential nature. And this double meaning spreads through Aristotle’s whole treatment of substance. The existence of substance and the distinction between it and other categories is for Aristotle self-evident. Kant on the other hand seems to suggest that the necessity for metaph ysics is a psychological one, arising out of men’s desires which is the main difference between Aristotle and him; however I would argue against Kant that this is not the case and it is a logical necessity.It arises out of the mere pursuit of knowledge thus that pursuit, which we call science, is an attempt to think in a logical and systematic manner. This involves unraveling the presuppositions of our thoughts. Furthermore it involves discovering that some of them are relative presuppositions which have to be justified and that others are absolute presuppositions, which neither stand in need of justification nor can in fact be justified; and a person who has made this discovery is already a metaphysician.Kant intends to defend metaphysic and scientific knowledge by providing an accurate analysis of human reason. His theory is based on his discovery of synthetic a priori knowledge, judgments that are both informative and necessary. However I would argue against this nominalis t point of you as there’s a problem with explaining how much judgment should arise, as well as to give an explanation of their truth.In other words The Critique of Pure Reason argues that the necessary metaphysical principles underlying all hypothetical knowledge originate in the pure forms of feeling and the intellect. Furthermore In Kant’s point of view, there are no universal concepts underlying reality, simply the phenomenon in front of us. Realists, on the other hand, maintain that all things that share the same property — for example, greenness for all things with the color green — are therefore linked by this property. Sharing this property implies possession of the same universal form.Nominalism posits that what is perceived is what exists in reality, whereas realists view a perceived object as the manifestation of a universal concept. Consequently, perception is not a one-to-one process of seeing something as it actually exists, but a synthesis o f the underlying concept and real phenomena. Kant wrote the Critique of Pure Reason not as a piece of constructive metaphysical thinking, but it was placed before the public in order to move away from errors which had obstructed and did obstruct metaphysical thinking.In his preface, he argued that his view of Metaphysics is concerned with God, freedom and immortality; however as well as dealing with these subjects, it also signified an inquiry to which men could never be indifferent and which they would never renounce thus the question was no longer about whether people should have metaphysics or no metaphysics but whether they should have good metaphysics or bad metaphysics. He also argued that metaphysicians were to blame for this state of things and that a sounder metaphysics was not to be looked for until those errors had been cleared away. Kant’s way of accommodating both the Aristotelian and Newtonian world pictures alike- both natural teleology and natural mechanism is to ground both in the necessary possibility of rational human nature. According to Kant, the natural world is an objectively real material world in which human persons actually do exist, and consequently in which human persons must also be possible† (Hanna, 2006, p15). Kant’s point is that if metaphysical knowledge is possible, it will share some of the distinctiveness of logic.For Kant, any science must be based on necessary principles as one would not be able to be certain of what theories are true if scientific principles were only contingent. However unlike logic, which is purely formal, metaphysics has content because it is the science of reality. For Kant, The Laws of logic are not absolute or universal they are in fact left with everything else knowable as phenomenal. ‘Nominalist is true’ and ‘A and Not A, cannot both be true’ are both true statements but only and only because this is the way our subjective minds structure and condition reality.They can never true in the universal and absolute sense without this phenomenological caution. For Kant these statements are not necessarily true (though it may be) outside of phenomenal experience. There is no question that Kant intends his theory of pure concepts to replace Aristotle’s theory of the categories. In his categories, Aristotle identified ten classes as the fundamental ontological types under which all things fall: substance, quantity, quality, relation, place, time, posture, state, action and passion.He thought that things falling under all categories could be subject of essential predications, but only substances can keep their identities while undergoing change in time. In general the categories express metaphysical principles that set limits on meaningful discussions. Kant’s idea of categories differentiated from Aristotle’s in the sense that, he argued rather being empirical, in order for the categories to be successful, they must sho w that the concepts are pure and have originated in understanding rather than sensibility.In addition the list must include only fundamental concepts, and it must be systematic to ensure completeness. Kant believes it is possible to obtain a complete list because pure concepts express functions of the understanding, thus the key to a complete list is to assume that the understanding has one function. It can be argued that this method is an improvement over Aristotle’s who merely conducted an empirical survey of concepts, which can never guarantee the systematic completeness of the list. In Aristotle’s case it is unclear whether he saw it as a doctrine about things and their basic properties or about language and its basic predicates; whereas  Kant  quite explicitly used his categories as features of our way of thinking, and so applied them only to things as they appear to us, not as they really or ultimately are† (Barnes, 1995, p75). In conclusion Aristotle a nd Kant’s metaphysics differentiate in the sense that one is arguing in favor of realism and the other is arguing in favor of Nominalism.Although there is no doubt that both ideas have faults, the account I agree the most with is indeed Aristotle’s conception of metaphysics as it focuses on the logical necessity of metaphysics rather than psychological. The main differences between the two accounts can be seen in their treatment of perception, treatment of universals and treatment of language. Bibliography Ackrill, J. L. 1995. Aristotle. London: Routledge. 161 Allison, H. E. 2012. Essays on Kant. Oxford: Oxford University Press Barnes, J. 1995. The Cambridge companion to Aristotle. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Buroker, J. V. 2006.Kant’s Critique of pure reason: an introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University press. Page 8 Collingwood, R. G, 1966. An essay on Metaphysics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hanna, R. 2006. Kant, Science and Human Nature. O xford University Press: Oxford. Loux, J. 2006. Metaphysics a contemporary introduction. London: Routledge Ross, D. 1996. Aristotle. London: Routledge Shields, C. 2007. Aristotle. London: Routledge Gardner, S. 1999. Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason. London: Routledge Smith, N. K. 2007. Critique of Pure Reason. London: Palgrave Macmillan Warrington, J. 1956. Aristotle’s Metaphysics. London: J. M. Dent & Sons